News Is Nothing More Than A Strategic Ritual Media Essay

News Is Nothing More Than A Strategic Ritual Media Essay From my opinion, to be objective, it is to illustrate both sides of a particular point of view without being subjective. This means that what is being portrayed should be value free. The journalist illustrates the whole truth about an event without including his or her own opinion in a subjective manner. There has been an ongoing discourse about objectivity. Objectivity in the news being nothing more than a strategic ritual. Firstly, objectivity can be hard to define as illustrated by Schudson â€Å"Objectivity might be a professional idea, but it is one that seemed to disintegrate as soon as it was formulated. It became an ideal in journalism, after all, precisely when the impossibility of overcoming the subjectivities of presenting the news was widely accepted. Criticism of the â€Å"myth† of objectivity has been a contrapuntal accompaniment to the enunciation of objectivity as an ideal from the beginning† (Schudson, 1990: 269). â€Å"To a sociologist, the word â€Å"Objectivity† is fraught with meaning. It invokes philosophy, notions of science, and ideas of professionalism. It conjures up the ghost of Durkheim and Weber, recalling disputes in scholarly journals concerning the nature of â€Å"social facts† and the term â€Å"value free†Ã¢â‚¬  (Tuchman 1972: 660). This therefore suggests that the term objectivity is burdened with different meaning, thus very difficult to define as any definition of such word can easily be obsolete. However Schudson on the other hand argues that â€Å"A commitment to objectivity in journalism can be defined as meaning that â€Å"a persons statement about the world can be trusted if they are submitted to established rules deemed legitimate by a professional community† (Schudson 1978: 294 cited in Harcup 2009: 82) According to Bennet, â€Å"there are reasons to be dissatisfied with the news these days. Yet, news remains the primary source of information about society, politics, and government†. These problems could be said to be related to the term objectivity. In the sense that so many factors affect the news, thus the news cannot be seen as the whole truth, as it could be argued that it is fragmented. Furthermore the publics perception about society and all other events are distorted. In relating it back to the question, it can be argued that objectivity in the news is not a strategic ritual because there are factors beyond the newsmans power that cannot be controlled, as other individuals are involved in the production of the news, such as the gate keeper who decides what news is and is not presented. Thus the news is subjective. â€Å"Perhaps the most unsettling thought of all is that the electronic media, the principal source of political information for many if not many American citizens (Robinson and Levy 1985), might be biased in the presentation of public affair† (Kuklinsk 1992: 810). This can be said to be related to objectivity because there is always the question about selection of news. How journalist select news would determine whether the news they produce would have bias included, thus the selection of news would be considered in further paragraphs. Bearing in mind that they previously hold a certain view about a topic. This would then create bias in the news report. News is the only source in which individuals find out events happening in society. However like it was previously reiterated, the news is always biased, one way or the other, thus the public is not fully aware of what is going on around them. â€Å"More than one public official has made this very claim.when every president- liberal or conservative, democrat or republican-has complained bitterly about the inaccurate and unfair picture the networks were presenting†(Kuklinsk 1992: 811)â€Å"Reagans secretary of state, George Shult, was heard to protest that â€Å"it seems as though the reporters are against us. Theyre always seeking to report something thats going to screw things up† (quoted by Karp 1985, 63). With this, it can be illustrated that the newsmen may actually do it on purpose, so that they could attract increasing audiences. This could be said to be objectivity in the news to be a strategic ritual, in the sense that journalist would go any length just to entertain the public at the expense of politicians profile. Thus getting increased audience because relating it to news values, the public would like to hear more on bad news and unexpectedness. The more the news is unexpected, the more it would attract increased audiences. There are two questions which confront us when we deal with the problems of how news is selected from the multitude of events which occur in the world. The first is: what is selected?the second is that of objectivity: namely, how accurately does such a selection reflect the real world? (Cohen and Young 1973: 17). The idea that journalist have the choice to select the news they want to report on, it means that they are already being subjective about the particular topic they want to report on. Thus, objectivity in the news could be said to be a strategic ritual. This could be so, because they might already hold a particular perspective on the topic. Hence would unavoidably be able to neglect their point of view in reporting the news, so the news becomes biased in the sense that they are selling their opinion to the public about a particular topic. Consequently, they give biased news to the public; therefore the public gets a distorted view about what the journalist is writing about. â€Å"According to Gaye Tuchman, objectivity can be seen as a strategic ritual that journalist use as a defence mechanism. She identified four routine procedures that allow journalist claim objectivity for their work: the presentation of conflicting possibilities, the presentation of supporting evidence, the judicious use of quotation marks, the structuring of information in an appropriate sequence† (Tuchman, 299-301 cited in Harcup 2009) The word objectivity can be affected by several factors of only some would be discussed, which in turn affects the report in which the journalist produces. This can be illustrated by Tuchman 1972, who explained that â€Å"there are three types of factors which influence the newsmans notion of objectivity: form, inter organization relationships, and content. By form, I mean those attributes of news stories and newspapers which exemplify news procedures such as the use of quotation marks†(Tuchman 1972: 661) This is to show that by using such quotation marks, it would mark the objectivity of the event. Individuals who must have witnessed whatever event would be able to give a full account about what happened. Thus, the journalists report would be objective and free from bias thus exemplifying him from problems if he produced inaccurate news. â€Å"By content I mean notions of social reality which the news paper man takes for granted. Content is also related to the newsmans orga nisational relationships, for his experiences with these organisations lead him to take for granted certain things about them† (Tuchman 1972: 661). Everett Hughes (1964) cited in Tuchman 1972: 661 â€Å"suggests that procedures that serve this purposes may be seen as â€Å"rituals†inasmuch as newspapermen invoke ritualistic procedures in order to deflect potential criticism and to follow routines bounded by the â€Å"cognitive limits of rationality†, they are also performance â€Å"strategies† (March and Simon 1967, pp.137, 142)Objectivity as strategic ritual may be used by professionals to defend themselves from critical onslaught†. Overall, these factors/ procedures help protect the journalist and the organisations integrity in the sense that they would not get accused of producing inaccurate news and they would not get sued unnecessarily. All these factors explained by Tuchman, it can be argued that objectivity in the news is a strategic ritual i n the fact that, they are trying to protect their back and save the organisations reputation. It can be argued that objectivity in the news is a strategic ritual because it can be said that the newspaper and writers are trying to get an increase audience. With them publishing the news, it would actually help increase their organisational revenue in the sense that they would experience high circulation. Also with the increased audience, it means that they would be at the top of the competition list, therefore giving them the competitive edge against other news providers. Thus giving them a unique selling point, which means they would be able to differentiate themselves from other news organisations. as a result stand out. This could be illustrated further, according to Young â€Å"the market model then maintains that the responsible journalist selects these events which are in the public interest to know and objectively portray reality within the format and genre of the particular media concerned†(Young 1973: 17). The public would like to know that they are being provi ded with objective news, thus the journalist would try their best to provide the news, so by making sure they get objective news, and they increase their readership and circulation. This would benefit them because it would allow them to be popular against their competitors. However, for the fact journalist select the news they think the public would be interested and present it as objectively as they can, this could be said to be a strategic ritual. The selection of news would further be illustrated later in this essay. This may be so, in the fact that they dont want to get themselves into trouble for providing biased news, thus affecting their integrity in the organisation they work and publicly soiling the organisations reputation. This means that the public would not trust the news they produce, thus, they would continually get negative criticism. This could be illustrated by Tuchman 1977b cited in Shoemaker 1996 who â€Å"argues that objectivity is a ritual that objectivity is a ritual that serves primarily to defend the organisational product from critics. Because newsworkers have little time to reflect on whether they have gotten at the â€Å"truth† in their stories, the need a set of procedure, or strategies, that if followed will protect them from occupational hazards such as libel suit and reprimands from superior†. Consequently, journalists follow a set of guidelines to avoid critics so that they dont get into unnecessary trouble and to be able to protect themselves from disgrace. Like it was previously said, journalist get chance to select the news they want to write about. The idea that they are allowed to do that shows that the news they are going to write about is already biased on the fact that they might already have a subjected view about it. Thus, the news would be value laden as well as hardly value free. Also for the fact that journalist use different sources to make up their news, Even though they are supposedly trusted sources of theirs, the question is how can they be so sure that the news the trusted sources provide is objective. Thus, it shows that they cannot be sure if the news is 100% objective. â€Å"Calling into the question of validity of representational knowledge about the world- arguing that news is as much a bureaucratic product as it is a reflection of external reality and that ‘objectivity is essentially a strategic ritual- is at bottom incompatible with journalisms self legitimating discourses. Pointing out that the subjects (i.e. the journalists) perception are not just the product of individual autonomy, showing that journalist (like all of us) are inexorably entangled with and in part constituted by language us, serve to erode the foundations of the conventional wisdom†(Dahlgren 1992: 11). Consequently, this shows that, it is not only the journalist who influences the news they write, as all other people are involved..This can also be reiterated by Shoemaker 1996: 112 â€Å"objectivity, although a cornerstone of journalist ideology, is rooted in practical organisational requirements. In this sense, objectivity is less a core belief of journalist t han a set of procedures to which journalist willingly conform in other to protect themselves from attack†. Consequently, this shows that the organisations also have an influence on the new. With the organisation involved there would be less chance of the company endangering their integrity and shame on their organizational image. Both of these sources show that the firm in which these journalists work for, has an influence on the type of news they produce in the sense that they always have a say. This is done so as to protect their image. Thus a set of gu are provided for the journalist to follow, so that they do not drift off the organisations rules and regulation about reporting news. This therefore means that journalists have no choice but to follow the set guidelines or they lose their job. According to Michael Schudson (1978) cited in shoemaker 1996: 112 â€Å"notes that at the turn of the century, newspapers in competing for circulation, tried to conform to the publics standards of truth, decency, and good taste. Reporters believed they had to be lively and entertaining while factual at the same time. Indeed, editors and reporters were pre-occupied with facts to avoid public criticism and embarrassment for the newspaper†. This could be said to be spin and twisting, for the fact that journalist thought that they had to be entertaining and lively. The idea of being entertaining would mean that they are trying to reach audiences they never actually reached out to. This can also be related to the idea that objectivity in the news is not an objective idea, for the fact that the news would most probably be shortened thus audiences would not get the full picture. This could be illustrated by Shoemaker who argued that â€Å"the objectivity routine also leads to omitt ing seemingly harmless information† (Shoemaker 1996: 113). Consequently, it means that audiences are not receiving the whole story of an event. The thought that journalist are omitting some of the information may be good, in the sense that the public would get an idea and grasp a bit about a complicated story about events in society. As illustrated in Bennets Book in a case study, â€Å"news stories often oversimplify larger and more complex realities. In many ways it is goodHowever, the news may radically simplify realities to the point of distortion or omission of important information for various reasons†(Bennett 2007: 211)† This therefore suggests that objectivity in the news could be omitted for good reason; however, it should not necessarily be said to be a strategic ritual, because it is being done for a good cause. However on the other hand, it can be argued that objectivity in the news is strategic ritual in the sense that important information would be h idden an omitted from the public thus making the public naÃÆ' ¯ve to events happening in society. It can also be argued otherwise that objectivity in the news is not a strategic ritual on the fact that journalist right from the start have the obligation to report the truth and try as much as possible to be objective so as to avoid libel suits but for the fact that they have deadlines to reach. This means they would actually be time conscious. Thus having less spare time to check over their report therefore it might be difficult to have totally objective news as illustrated by Tuchman 1972 â€Å"unlike social scientists, newsmen have a limited repertoire with which to define and defend their objectivity. He must make immediate decisions concerning validity, reliability, and â€Å"truth† in other to meet the problems imposed by the nature of his taskthe newsmen need some working notion of objectivity to minimize the risk imposed by deadline, libel suits, and superiors reprimands† (Tuchman 1972: 662) â€Å"Objectivity is defined as a matter of intent, it includes the freedom to disregard the implications of the news. Indeed, objectivity could not long exist without this freedom, for the moment journalists are required to consider the effects of news on sources and others they would have to begin assessing their own intent and to relinquish their detachment, especially if they wanted to prevent injury to someone (Gans, 1979: 188). Overall, it can be argued from a perspective that objectivity in the news is a strategic ritual, down to the idea that organisations train their potential journalist and give them guidelines on how to report news in an objective manner without being biased. This is done so as to protect the organisations integrity and the journalist status. Thus, it would help them avoid libel suits. This could be illustrated by Tuchman 1972: 678 who concluded that â€Å"objectivity used defensively as a strategic ritual. Objectivity refers to routine procedures which may be exemplified as formal attributes and to protect the professional from mistakes and from his critics†. And for the fact that journalist have to follow these set guidelines means objectivity in the news is a strategic ritual, as it means that these journalist have no choice, thus they cannot go against it as they would most probably lose their job Furthermore, if journalists do not provide objective news as they could, then the public would most probably not think journalism is a serious and professional job. Thus no one would see them as trustworthy. Thus it is their duty to provide the public with objective news. This can then be said that objectivity in the news is not a strategic ritual, as they have no choice but to provide non biased news so as to inform the public. Bibliography Bennet, W. L. (2007) News: The Politics of Illusion, New York: Longman, Pearson Cohen, S. Young, J. ( ) The Manufacture of News, London: Macmillan. Dahlgren, P. Sparks, C. (1992) Journalism and Popular Culture: London, SAGE Publications. Galtung, J. Ruge, M. (1981) ‘Structuring and Selecting News, in S. Cohen J. Young (eds) The Manufacture of News, London: Macmillan Gans, H. (1979) Deciding whats News. A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nigthly News, Newsweek and Time. New York: Random House Harcup, T. (2009) Journalism: Principles and Practice. London, SAGE Publications Kuklinski, J. H. Sigelman, L. (1992) ‘When Objectivity is not objective: Network T.V News Coverage of US Senators and the â€Å"Paradox of Objectivity† in Journal of Politics, 54 (3) Shoemaker, P. Reese, S. (1996) Mediating The message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content. (2nd ed.), London: Longman. Schudson, M. (2003) The Sociology of News. New York: United States of America. Tuchman, G. (1972) Objectivity as Strategic Ritual: An examination of Newsmens notion of Objectivity in American Journal of Sociology, 77: 660-67

Governments advance Essay

As man advances in his everyday life, the governments advance in warfare technology too1. New sophisticated weaponry changed warfare tactics and warfare became a vastly advanced art. The crude techniques were quickly replaced with refined ones. The increase in damage and death commensurate with the increase in technology leading to very high death counts, and leaving a myriad maimed for life. The technological inventions were self- defeating to man. Man staged war with himself. The very inventions he made became a thorn in his own flesh! WW1 saw the advent of tanks and gas as some of the new technologies. For instance the British mark 1 tank was first used in September 19162. The tanks had their limitations such as getting stuck in the mud and toppling over. They were mechanically unreliable. The tanks were not the war winning weapons as the generals hoped they would be3. The German on the other hand were the first to use chlorine gas at Ypress in 1915. The chlorine gas is a lung irritant. Symptom such as bright red lips and blue face denote gas poisoning. Chlorine gas poisoning killed its victims a slow death of suffocation. It caused long diseases such as emphysema. The civilians suffered from this too. In 1915 the Germans added phosgene, which was more suffocating. The effects of phosgene caused bleeding that corrupted the lungs. Mustard gas, which was also used, burnt the entire layer of skin from the face and body. This was dangerous as its effects were not noticed, burnt the skin and ripped out the lining of the lungs. Gas had a rippling effect like atomic bomb had in world war2. Their uniqueness was in the fact that they were air-borne, had the risk of causing mass destruction and there effects agonizing. We can have an overview of what the weapons looked like and the technologies they espoused. â€Å"New weapons revolutionized combat in war1†4. It gave the war an altogether new model. For instance, trench warfare. The factories of industrial Europe were held culprit for this new war technologies that were destructive and ruinous. We can divide the first war and weaponry in to a number of categories: Artillery: These were new and improved cannons. British soldiers fired approximately 170 millions but the German scientist did not accept to be left behind. They developed the biggest artillery ever known. It was called the Big Bertha. It was such a powerful weapon. New high-explosive shells were developed as well and made more efficient. Artillery fire killed thousands of men and made aiding more difficult as it blew the ground. 5 Communication: as we have indicated WW1 was a trench warfare radios and telephones were the main ways of communication and was very essential ways of communication and was very essential for the troops in trenches. Messengers gave dogs and other like pigeons were gradually being faced out. Machine guns: the effectiveness of machine guns reached frightening new levels in the WW1 they could fire 600 bullets a minute which was estimated t be equivalent of 250 men with rifles. With this kind of ability machine guns were deemed to be weapons of mass destructions. Gas grenades: we have looked at chlorine, phosgene and mustard gas. Which burned the lung of the inhaler leaving them to die in agony. Has masks that were issued to everyone in German were of so effective therefore leaving many people dead6 Tanks: also known as the chariots of god. As we have seen at first they were not very reliable but scientist kept making new improved tanks such that by 1918, the Anglo-American mark 8th could carry up to 8 men and fire 208 shells and up to 13,000 bullets. Another weapon of mass destruction! An armored car was developed and could travel up to 8 kilometers and had 8 machine guns. Transportation: transportation of troops in to battlefields became vital necessitating the increase in more efficient transportation needs. Trains, taxis and lorries were used to ferry soldiers to battlefields and other places. Planes: they epitomized the new types of weapons used in advanced technology warfare huge blimp-like bombers called zeppelins were used7. Their speed and efficiency killed thousand of people

Death is my best theme Essay

â€Å"Death is my best theme, don’t you think? † (Williams). Explore the varied uses Tennesse Williams makes of death and dieing in â€Å"A Streetcar Names Desire† Referring to â€Å"A Streetcar Named Desire†, I completely agree that death is Williams’ best theme, closely followed by sex. There are many references to death as well as imagery and symbolism. He also uses many varied points on death. The first major speech about death is when Blanche is talking about her losing Belle Reve – â€Å"Blanche: All of those deaths! The long parade to the graveyard! Father, mother! Margaret, that dreadful way! So big with it, it couldn’t be put in a coffin! † This is the first thing that Blanche says that has any power and real feeling behind it and the topic is death. This is showing that death is going to play a large part in the feeling in and behind the story. â€Å"Blanche: You just came home in time for the funerals, Stella. And funerals are pretty compared to deaths. Funerals are quiet, but deaths-not always. † Stella is being associated with the funerals and Blanche with the deaths. This is showing Stella being quiet and Blanche being louder and more highly strung as that is how she has described the difference in her speech. Although on the outside this speech made by Blanche may sound like she is just talking about the deaths of all her family members but it is also relating to the death of Belle Reve and how the two are connected – â€Å"Blanche: How in hell do you think all that sickness and dying was paid for? Death is expensive, Miss Stella! † She describes death in quite a lot of detail in this speech; it is showing that death is going to become an important topic in this play. A lot of the deaths seem to be because of the men and their gambling and this could be a view of Williams’. – â€Å"Blanche: Honey-that’s how it slipped through my fingers! Which of them left us a fortune? † In â€Å"A Streetcar Named Desire† a lot of the times when death is being discussed, sex seems to come into the conversation to. There is a strange relation between sex and death here. – â€Å"I let the place go? Where were you. In bed with your-Polak! † This is not the strongest reference to death and sex combined although it is a slight one. A much stronger one is Blanche’s speech about her late husband- â€Å"Blanche: Then I found out in the worst of all possible ways. By coming suddenly into a room that I though was empty-which wasn’t empty, but had two people in it†¦. † â€Å"Blanche: He’d stuck the revolver into his mouth, and fired-so that the back of his head had been-blown away! † Seeing her husband have sex with another man and then blow his head off within the time span of two hours causes a strange equation and connection between sex and death. The way he killed himself could also be perceived as a homosexual reference – sticking the gun in his mouth. â€Å"A vendor comes around the corner. She is a blind MEXICAN WOMAN in a dark shawl, carrying bunches of those gaudy tin flowers that lower class Mexicans display at funerals and other festive occasions. † Here, the woman carrying the funeral flowers is symbolising two things – Death and Blanche. It is ambiguous whether or not any of the other characters can see or are aware of the presence of the Mexican woman except from Blanche. Blanche’s thoughts seem to be provoked by the Mexican woman and it almost seems as if the Mexican woman is a representation of Blanche herself, and the Mexican woman is walking around celebrating death which shows the death within Blanche’s past and presence. â€Å"Mexican Woman: Corones para los muertos. Corones†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Blanche: Legacies! Huh†¦. And other things such as blood-stained pillow-slips† You can really see Blanche going mad in this scene as she is almost talking to herself rather than to Mitch and this symbolises the dying of Blanche’s mind. She also has fragmented speech patterns here and if talking about incoherent memories that only she can really understand. – â€Å"Blanche: -and on the way back they would all stagger on to my lawn and call-â€Å"Blanche! Blanche! † – The deaf old lady remaining suspected nothing. But sometimes I slipped outside to answer their calls†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Later the paddy-wagon would gather them up like daisies†¦. the long way home†¦. † Another view on death Tennesse Williams uses is the death of Belle Reve. Shown using Blanche and Stanley, there is a clash between two worlds and the Belle Reve world is dying communicated by Stanley taking power of Blanche and bringing her into their world and getting rid of her airs and graces. He breaks her and makes her realise that her old way of living is dead and that she has to enter the real world. â€Å"In A Streetcar Named Desire the conflict between two ways of life is concentrated within the battle between Blanche and Stanley. The old civilisation vested in Blanche is demonstrably decadent; her only means of survival in the modern world is to batten onto someone else and live off their emotional, physical and material resources, like a decorative fungus. † (Commentary). â€Å"Blanche: I will die – with my hand in the hand of some nice-looking ship’s doctor, a very young one with a small blond moustache and a big silver watch. † â€Å"Blanche: And I’ll be buried at sea sewn up in a clean white sack and dropped overboard-at noon-in the blaze of summer-and into an ocean as blue as (chimes again) my first lover’s eyes. † Blanche brings the equation of sex and death together again here as she is planning of dieing with a man by her side. This speech made by Blanche nearing the end of the play also has a slight reference to Othelia in Shakespeare’s â€Å"Hamlet†. Othelia died in water and that is what Blanche is dreaming about doing. – â€Å"Queen: One woe doth tread upon another’s heel, So fast they follow. Your sister’s drown’d, Laertes. Laer: Drown’d? O, where? † (Hamlet). In conclusion Tennesse Williams uses a lot of different views on death, the connection between sex, the death of other things except people like the death of Belle Reve and Blanche’s mind, and the death of people who happen to all be someone in Blanche’s Past. Williams uses different angles to express the theme of death, symbolism of the death of Belle Reve, the Mexican woman symbolising the death of Blanche’s mind, and the outward talking of real death of people. This makes it an important topic as it depicted in so many ways. Death is defiantly in the running for Tennesse Williams’ best theme in â€Å"A Streetcar Named Desire†.

The Operant Conditioning Theory And Its Core Values Essay

Question 2) Identify 2 behaviors the child learned through operant conditioning. Be specific about the operant principles involved in the child’s process of learning each new behavior. As stated by B.F Skinner operant conditioning is a learning method where the behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences. B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory and its core values can help explain Julie’s behavior. Key concepts in operant conditioning are negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, and positive punishment (Wong, 2012). Operant behavior can change by certain stimuli being provided and the chances of the behavior happening again in the future increase by wanting to remove or avoid the negative consequence. There is also a possibility of a precise behavior happening again depending on the intensity of the association of the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the reinforcement with the behavior (Wong, 2012). For the most part the likelihood of the behavior happening again depends on the consequence. It is evident that Julie is going through a hard time because she no longer has her friend Daisy. Therefore, Julie began isolating herself from others because she could potentially feel that no one understands the way she is feeling about having her friend move to another school. In addition, Julie has learned not to express her feelings in regards of missing her friend Daisy through negative reinforcement because she was teased at school, sheShow MoreRelatedLearning and Memory Worksheet Essay1337 Words   |  6 Pagesand Memory Worksheet Write a 450- to 700-word essay to describe the relationship between classical and operant conditioning. Explain their elements and how they differ from one another. Additionally, provide an example for how learning can occur through each mode of conditioning. Explain how Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner contributed to the study of learning and conditioning. 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